Wildfire Threats and Mitigation - Puako Forest
An analysis and report
Prepared by: Neil Logan
April, 2008
Introduction
For hundreds of years Puako has been a fishing village. It is located on a flood plain and high fire
threat zone. The public land areas are
presently managed by the DLNR. Other
agencies such as the Fire Department, Parks and Recreation, the West Hawaii Fire
Management Organization and the private landowners are involved in helping to
develop plans to mitigate the serious threats of fire and floods.
Over the past several decades, this area and the surrounding coast
has developed and grown into an upscale community of exclusive resorts and
deluxe beach houses. This has created a
conglomeration of “oldtimers” and Kama’aina, who value keeping traditional
lifestyles of fishing and surfing, to absentee homeowners who may focus on the
value of the real estate and tropical ambiance or prestige of owning a home in
this location.
Also during these decades, as a result
of ranching that took place in this area prior to the commercial and community
development, Kiawe trees were left alone to grow rampantly into unmanaged thick
forests. This unmanaged forest continues to grow and presents serious, well
documented threats of fire and flooding that could cause tremendous damage to
the real estate and ancient sites in this area.
In keeping with a desire for safety
from fires and flood while maintaining a culturally balanced use of this land,
and creating an aesthetically pleasing view, this report provides an
explanation of the unmanaged forest situation and its history. Based on my
expertise as an ethno-botanist working in this area and studying this forest
for several years, I present a carefully balanced and culturally sensitive
approach to mitigating threats of fire and flood to this special place. In addition to this, I provide researched
options and opportunities of creating a forest that can thrive with diversity
and economic opportunity.
Table of Contents
Kiawe
as a species
The Puako
Kiawe Forest and Region: Description and History
Land
Stewardship
Forest
productivity and substance
Threat to
Human Life and Property:
Wildfires and floods
Fire
Mitigation
Implementation
Strategies: Cost and Schedule
Considerations
and Recommendations
Summary
Appendices
A. Possible Value-added Products
from Kiawe (Prosopis pallida)
B. “How to prune a Kiawe tree for fire safety,
productivity and long term health of the tree.”
C. Maps
References
Kiawe as a species
Kiawe (Prosopis
Pallida) is a salt-tolerant, nitrogen-fixing, desert-forest pioneer legume
tree brought to Hawaii from Peru in the early 1800s. Its primary use in West
Hawaii has been as a shade tree and for animal fodder. According to retired
deputy state forester Colonel L.W. Bryan, “Kiawe is the most important and
valuable tree ever introduced to the state.” (Esbenshade,1980)
Because
Kiawe wood is very dense and of high energy value, (~4,800 kcal/kg = 17,000 Btu/kg) it is an important resource for
domestic energy production on the leeward coast of the state, via the process
of wood gasification. Additionally, the Kiawe pods have been used throughout
ancient history as a food source and have been vital to sustainable agriculture
and domestic food security.
Kiawe has the ability to live in saline, arid, tropical deserts
where little else can grow. This,
coupled with its non-toxic, human and animal food products, and potent wood
producing attributes makes Kiawe a powerful ally for mitigating many global
challenges in producing food and creating watershed areas. Kiawe has the
ability to forest harsh arid and semi-arid tropical climates while producing
food, medicine, building materials and energy for the people who manage those
forests. The larger picture of Kiawe is that it brings the possibility of
protecting our earth against rapid global warming and providing food in desert
areas. This would make reforesting tropical deserts an economically viable
endeavor.
Kiawe also
has natural medicinal properties. The
seeds of kiawe produce galactomanan gum; a complex sugar that helps reduce
diabetes. Diabetes is a major epidemic in Hawaii and the rest of the
U.S.A. Hawai’i could be at the
forefront of continued research on the potential of this plant’s medicinal
qualities.
Kiawe is considered a non-native and invasive plant by some
people. No attempts at complete eradication of Prosopis have ever been successful anywhere. “Trees demolished by
chainsaws resprout at their bases, growing back into multi-trunked shrubs”
(Nabhan 1987). “Chemicals fail to achieve the complete kills of all Prosopis pests for which they are
targeted. Past attempts to eradicate the trees and shrubs without considering
the underlying causes for their spread, such as selective advantage over non-N
fixers on impoverished sites, have usually led to reestablishment of dense
stands” (Felker and Patch 2005). What is observed in Hawai’i is that the Kiawe
is slow to spread on its own, usually owing most of its dispersal through
cattle dung.
That is
why ridding the islands of Kiawe is not a viable option. However, it has been shown that it can be
used to nurture native Hawaiian forest trees that are almost extinct. It is now one of the few suitable nitrogen
fixing host trees on the leeward coast capable of nursing young native
sandalwood (Iliahi) trees below the 2000’ elevation. The leeward coast
contains some of Hawaii’s most endangered ecosystems and the Kiawe could be
used to enhance and rejuvenate these ecosystems.
Kiawe prefers
water to come from underground because rain is destructive to its flowers and
fruits. Experiments have been performed to determine optimal irrigation rates
for Prosopis spp. Generally, it
appears that Kiawe will send its roots directly into water and extract what it
needs. Growth like what is seen in Puakō may be due to its access to
unlimited water and abundant nutrition.
The Puako Kiawe Forest and region: description and history
The Puako Kiawe forest and is located at the base of Mauna Kea,
Mauna Loa, and Hualalai. It is also located to some degree, according to
watershed, at the base of the Kohala Mountain. The nearby Kīholo lava
plane rises up creating a large swale parallel to the coast. Puako receives
less than 10” of rain annually. Mean temperature is greater than 76F. According
to the Puako Historical Society, at one time Lehua, Kou, ‘Iliahi and Heau
sandalwoods, Curly Koa, Hala and other native and endemic plants, trees and
foliage comprised the forest along the shores of Puakō.
Wind patterns are diurnal. Onshore winds from mid morning to
before sunset and cool westerly winds sink down the mountain at night. Wind
velocity is usually 7-8 mph but high winds do occur. Puako is roughly 40’ above
sea level. Three drainage ways flow into the site = Kamakoa gulch, unnamed
gulch and Auwaiakeakua Gulch. It is within the 100 yr flood zone and the
tsunami zone. The soil is a very fine sandy loam alluvial referred to as
“Waikii Silty Loam”, arriving via the Kamakoa gulch.
This district was also formerly (and to
some degree still is) a Hawaiian fishing village within the Ahupua’a of
Lalamilo and Kalāhuipua’a. The reef off shore was known as a good
territory for harvesting octopus or He’e. There was ample fresh water in the
area to allow human settlement and the anchioline ponds along the shore allowed
the raising of baitfish and pronds. People harvested “Limu” (seaweed) and the
“Auwai” (irrigation ditches) enabled the cultivation of dry land taro and sweet
potatoes. According to anthropological
survey, the historic William Ellis (Waimea uplands from Puakō to
Waikoloa) and Ala Kahakai (Puakō to Napu’u) trails also pass
through this area. Furthermore, there are ancient Hawaiian petroglyphs on lava
in the region and at least one burial site is known (reference).
Parker Ranch, at one time the largest sustainable cattle ranch
operation in the United States, used Kiawe pods as supplemental cattle fodder
to fatten up cattle for market. By way of alimentary transport via cow dung,
trees quickly spread throughout all of the main inhabited Hawaiian islands.
This Big Island fishing village of Puakō became an important site for
cattle to graze and fatten on Kiawe pods in the summer months when there was
little other available forage.
Situated immediately off shore to Puakō are world reknown
class AA water and coral reefs that provide critical environmental elements for
survival of primary feeders and reef life that are the bases of the oceanic
food chain. This fact alone has been acknowledged and has received
consideration for protection by county and state agencies.
Puakō is a unique site for the leeward coast of the Big
Island. Due to its location it is a
flood plain that has brought soil down from the mountain creating rich
conditions for agriculture. The soil has been measured as deep as 30-50 feet in
some places before reaching the 5,000-year-old lava flow below (eight feet is
said to be the shallowest of soils in Puakō) (Thevine 2006). Also, the
site has a water table within four feet below the surface in some places
(Shumate 2006).
Sugar cane was once grown on a commercial scale in Puakō,
hence the English / Hawaiian Dictionary denotes its name: Pua = flower
and Kō is the Hawaiian word for sugar cane. The area was once flood
irrigated but the mauka deforestation that occurred in the late 1800’s, largely during the sandalwood trade, resulted in a decrease
of water running beneath the surface and an increase in the intensity and
frequency of periodic floods.
In addition to this, the Waimea stream was diverted to bring water
to Puakō circa 1914. However, this
attempt failed shortly after its completion. Generations of logging sandalwood
in the mountains had destroyed the watershed and altered the climate. The salty
soils precipitated an impenetrable crust on the soil. When the mill closed
other crops and farming was attempted.
Crops such as Alfalfa & Guinea Grass, corn, sweet potatoes, Hawaiian
tobacco, cotton, mustard cabbage, tomatoes, coffee and watermelon were grown
with varying rates of success, but no large scale operations ever seemed to
take root.
Most crops had and still have a difficult time growing in Puako
since sugar cane because the irrigation caused salt deposits in arid land
which, in turn, made the soil inhospitable to most conventional crops. However,
Solinaceaous plants like peppers and tomatoes are still known to grow well in
Puakō. Kiawe is extremely salt tolerant and thrives in the deep bottomland
soils of flood planes with access to abundant subterranean water. Now, water
still flows down from Mauna Kea and ends up in Puakō. Water flows
constantly under the Puakō Kiawe forest at a rate of 3.0-7.0 mgd per
coastal mile.
Robert Hind is
credited with the genesis of Kiawe at Puako. Founder trees were planted as
windbreak in the early 1900’s while Puako was a sugar cane field. Sugar failed
in Puako due to salted soils but Kiawe continued to thrive. Cattle spread the
Kiawe seeds throughout Puakō creating the present day 1000+ acre
forest. Cattle could move through
Puakō and drink from brackish water and get fat on Kiawe pods. The company
would fatten steers before shipping them to market from Kawaihae
Since then, this
region is no longer part of the ranching business but other businesses such as
organic honey farming has developed. Bees were brought to Puako to enhance
pollination thereby increasing the bean crop. Puakō is unique and unusually
productive producing flowers heavy with nectar (Spiegel, 2004). In the late 30’s, the Ichiro & Yukie Goto began to produce
“Gotos” Honey. Honey started at the time of the closing of the sugar mill and
continued until the late 1960’s. By late 1941 they loaded 1000 containers of
honey to export marking the peak of their honey production.
Presently, there are
several significant agricultural and botanical endeavors. Organic Honey production has been the most
successful use of the land since Kiawe replaced sugar production. The Puako
Kiawe Forest is considered a Terroir or special site for the production of
unique products, in this case the pure kiawe honey. Fence posts and firewood have also been extracted throughout this
time, with and without permission from land owners. There is also a diverse collection of coconuts which have grown for
decades around Wailea Bay and Puakō.
A private company that performs security services for the
Mauna Lani also provides a non-profit landscape service growing a large coconut
orchard fed by the Manua Lani effluent treatment wastewater. The coconuts are
grown on a rotation and transplanted at a certain age as landscape trees in the
resort. This organization also recycles the green waste and transforms it into
high quality compost. This demonstrates the viability of several concepts with regards
to the Puakō forest project (explained below): 1) nutrient recycling of
effluent water and green waste 2) growing coconuts on site for bee forage and
inter-crop co-products.
Puakō has always been rough terrain subject to the whims of
nature. Puakō ‘Olauniu winds frequently gust up to 55 mph. There is also
evidence that there have been tsunamis, which were responsible for much of the
sand in the forest. Major storms occur bringing large surf washing through the
ocean front properties. These elements
limit many agricultural and business activities.
The Hind family dug six wells during the development of the
plantation. Two of the wells were used recently for the Mauna Lani Resort,
which incorporated the brackish water for irrigation of the golf course. There
is also excellent water and a well on private land higher up which use gravity
to bring the water down. This water is very pure and fresh with low chlorides.
Land Stewardship
Puako was always a fishing village. Positive long-term land management strategies must be implemented
to maintain the cultural integrity of this historic region and protect it.
Modern purchases of the land have been made from ceded Hawaiian lands. Large land ownership has changed over time
and most of the present companies focus on developing this area as an upscale
resort and luxury residential district.
The public portion of the Puakō Kiawe forest is approximately
755 acres in size. This parcel is sandwiched in between private lands: the
residences to the west and Kiawe forest to the east, which rises up to the
highway. The private land is owned by an organization that has plans to build a
golf course. The golf course is proposed to be developed on the eastern portion
of the forest up to the highway. This controversial idea has many barriers.
First, the golf course would need at least 150 acres for 18 holes.
This would be a significant reduction of the Kiawe forest and may threaten the
organic status of the honey production depending on how the management group
decides to manage the golf course. Another threat to the forest posed by the
proposed golf course is the reorientation of the natural flood irrigation
system and the alteration of the hydrology of the site. If a golf course is
built in this area it will entail a lot of diversion of natural systems and the
creation of manmade systems to manage the water flow from the mountain, in
order to keep the periodic flooding from damaging the course. This diversion
could completely cut the forest from its water source lifeline and reduce or
eliminate the natural percolation of fresh water that enhances the water
quality and reef life into this area. Some have speculated that the golf course
is not realistic economically or environmentally.
Puako Productivity – forest types vs. yield
Large, highly productive trees growing in deep soil, with their
roots in water under the surface, characterize approximately 250 acres of the
public portion of the Puakō Kiawe forest. At least another 50+ acres of
this size exists on adjacent privately owned lands, comprising a total of
approximately 300 acres. Puako has high levels of non-organic nitrogen,
possibly uptaken by the trees, which may contribute to its rapid growth rates.
The forest helps to maintain existing nutrient balance. There is more land with
deep soil available locally but it is not currently covered with Kiawe.
Smaller trees of lower biomass productivity and lower-value lumber
dominate the rest of the forest. Presently, organic honey is the largest
business in this area and, in these sized stands, is of high quality but low
productivity. Kiawe pod yields are also low. Generally, these kinds of woody
stands are probably best managed as fuel-wood or microclimates for native
forest restoration. Noise pollution is also buffered by the forest
The challenge with working with these areas of small dense trees
is that they are on top of the hard lava flow and are located on top of ancient
Hawaiian burial sites. Petroglyphs are also found on top of the lava in this
area. These are sensitive cultural sites that need to be protected both from
alteration by humans and Kiawe. No mechanical equipment is allowed on the lava
here, so no mechanized harvesting can occur. Humans with chainsaws can go into
these areas and clear the sites but this will be laborious and expensive, and
it will be difficult to reduce the fuel loads without chippers nearby. This
scenario of forest management characterizes most of the Puakō Kiawe
forest.
Champion Trees
Puakō also retains some of Hawaii’s “Champion Trees” or
largest Kiawe trees in the state. It is a Kiawe situated on the makai side of
the road near the old Goto residence. This tree stands over 100 feet high and
has a straight trunk that does not fork until at least 10 feet up and is also
nearly thornless. It has been recommended that the tree be named “Goto’s” Kiawe
after the Goto family who pioneered honey production in Puakō. Trees like
“Goto’s Kiawe” are rare and unique, not just at Puakō but also throughout
the state and the world. Trees like this one need to be propagated and studied.
Other trees of this size were more common in Puakō and stumps
large enough for five people to stand around have been found deep in the
forest. Puakō is an ideal environment for Kiawe to flourish and it has
expressed itself fully there. It would be wise to protect the genetics of these
trees and propagate their unique qualities for use in local landscape projects,
biofuel production and reforestation projects abroad.
Wildfire
Threat to Human Life and Property
This forest is not only an important resource for the community,
but has the potential to develop as a “test lab” for global reforestation and
fire mitigation efforts. This forest
buffers harsh dry winds, protects the coral reef from runoff and receiving high
nutrient loads in the underground aquifer. Due to minimal management efforts,
fuel loads have built up to dangerous levels and floods regularly spill across
the forest into the residential community causing property damage. Using an
integrated management approach, it will be possible to turn this forest from a
problem into a viable solution to these threats.
Over many decades of neglect, a dense canopy of Kiawe trees has
formed. Management efforts to curb this overgrowth have been minimal at best,
especially in light of the fire hazard this poses to several neighboring luxury
resorts and upscale residential homes. The amount of energy embodied in the
wood of this forest is roughly equal to 33.7 Hiroshima bombs.
Serious fire outbreaks have occurred many times in the last three
decades, most notably the fire of 1987, in which 6 homes were lost and an
additional million dollars in property damage.
This area is threatened annually by wild fires. There are presently
approximately 200 homes in the Puako neighborhood and it is growing daily according
to the Puako Community Association. Present fire-fuel
loads are at dangerous levels. A fire mitigation program needs to be
implemented immediately in order to address the issue and ensure the protection
of property and lives.
The current fire protection strategy focuses on the maintenance of
escape roads and fuel breaks. However, clearing recreates perfect conditions
for the germination and growth of more Kiawe seedlings. Soon, dense stands of
young trees grow and present a greater fire hazard than a few large trees
scattered at wide spacing.
Fuel loads in the forest both on the ground and “ladder fuels”,
foliage around the base of the tree and low branches, leading into the crown
are a major concern. This must first be removed or reduced in order to minimize
out-of-control wild fires where a crown fire occurs. If the fuel loads are
reduced (not eliminated) the fire danger is minimized. The best way to do this
is to keep the larger trees, thin out the smaller ones, and remove all ladder
fuels. The canopy is lifted up so that a ground fire (mostly grass) will pass
below and not move into the crown. This kind of fire is more easily controlled
and extinguished whereas a large crown fire paired with the frequent strong
winds in this area, would very likely be able to jump a fuel break of any size
in Puakō.
As mentioned, the forest has received minimal attention for
management and maintenance. Access ways for fire trucks have been bulldozed and
in doing so enormous ladder fuels, in the form of burmed, dead, dry trees, have
been created. Dry fountain and Buffel grasses create a perimeter that leads
right up to the edge of the forest where they come in contact with ladder fuels
forming the genesis of a crown fire.
Once in the crown the fire can easily spread from crown to crown in the
high winds with plenty of fuel. Crown fires are usually the most distructive
and difficult to stop. Members of the
South Kohala and Waikoloa fire departments have commented that a major fire
event in the Puako Kiawe forest would most like require all of the fire
fighting resources of this island and possibly more.
If the forest was lost to a major fire event, there is a high
probability that the ash from it would find its way onto homes and into the
reef as airborne particulates. Any ash left on the ground would most likely be
washed towards homes and onto the reef during subsequent flood events. These floods would also be more devastating
due to the loss of flood buffering that currently occurs in the forest.
It is recommended that one unified management organization be
formed that will manage the Puakō Kiawe forest in total for the purpose of
fire safety for the community.
Forest Management: an overview
The Puako forest is divided into private and publicly controlled
parcels, each approximately 500 acres in size. The most productive acres (biomass) within the
DLNR (public) area closest to the ocean and Puakō residential community.
About 300 acres of the public area contain trees 40-60’ tall with large
canopies that fuse to form one large, mostly closed, canopy. The remaining 700
acres (200 public and 500 private) are characterized by dense stands of trees
10 – 50’ tall.
A fire mitigation program would effectively clean the understory
of all fuel loads and prune the trees up so that ground fire would pass beneath.
The ground is covered in most areas by Buffel grass and Fountain grasses, which
become dry and brown – the most likely vector for pyrogenesis. By clearing the
understory it becomes possible to move freely beneath the canopy enabling the
harvest of pods and develop the diversification efforts, including propagation
of native forest plants.
Research has demonstrated that the optimal density for Prosopis is approximately 41 trees per
acre or 100 trees per hectare. This spacing would allow for the full expression
of an adult tree form. Tall trees with shallow root systems are prone to
windfall. Pruning the trees down (topping) will help to “tighten” the canopy
and balance the symmetry of the tree so that it is not top heavy. This would
also concentrate the energy of the tree facilitating increased productivity per
tree, decreasing water usage and liberating more organic matter into the
system.
Creating a Living Fire Break of succulent plants would be the most
efficient and environmentally sound approach over the long term to help control
the re-growth of Kiawe trees along the fuel breaks and squelch ground fires.
The forest could then be managed to produce agricultural crops as a means to
offset the cost of maintenance.
Firebreak and Flood Mitigation: Critique
of current strategy
The current firebreak system is expensive, must be repeated regularly, yet it
minimally mitigates the real threat of wildfires destroying this area. It is
not very effective because Kiawe is a rapid colonizer of barren land. Any plot
of land that has been scraped and left uncovered by vegetation, and is hot and
sunny, is the perfect situation for Kiawe.
Its ecological role is to pioneer land that has been ravaged by
fire, lava or other disaster that leaves land barren. Kiawe moves in, utilizes
its nitrogen fixation capacity to literally grow out of thin air where no soil
currently exists. With time, the Kiawe will create shade, drop leaf litter and
wood, thereby increasing humidity and rotting – perfect conditions for the
creation of soil. Once soil is established, new plants can grow and
successively overtake the Kiawe. This occurs after a large wind blows a Kiawe
tree over. More sunlight through the canopy allows something nearby to flourish
and overgrow the Kiawe. Once Kiawe itself is shaded, its growth slows down and
it will eventually die, rot and move out of the system. However, its seeds have
proven to be viable in the soil for up to 50 years or more, waiting for the
moment when catastrophe strikes and the trees are needed to heal the soil once
more.
Every time the bulldozer moves through the forest it brings with it catastrophe
and leaves in its wake the perfect conditions for Kiawe to quickly sprout up
and do its job of “healing the soil.” This is why the current firebreak regime
will continue to create a cycle of high cost, low results mitigation. A
holistic, environmental and culturally aware approach to the situation will
address the needs of the soil and honor Kiawe’s role in the ecosystem, which includes
aiding restoration of native plants and diversified agriculture.
Studies have
demonstrated that the way to control Kiawe from spreading is to select large
trees and cut out the rest. The large trees will flourish as they fill out and
occupy the space that was formerly occupied by many smaller trees. Succulent
plants and actively cultivated fruits and vegetables will shade out seedlings
as well. Therefore, firebreaks will consist of a fewer large trees with a
lifted canopy. Below the canopy, succulent ground covers, native fire resistant
plants and food crops will grow. Animal (sheep/pigs) can be used to reduce pods
and dry grass ladder fuels.
Flood
The Puako forest is located in a flood plane. The flood waters
used to be captured in swales and ditches that transported the water north and
south across the forest preventing most of the water from ever reaching the
residences in the west. These swales have not been maintained, so periodic flooding to neighboring resorts and
residential homes has occurred several times over the last few decades. Until
an effective flood mitigation program is implemented, it is inevitable that
flooding will occur again.
Water enters the forest from at least 3 drainage tunnels that
cross below the Queen’s highway. The largest flow occurs at the northern most
entry zone and tends to move quickly across the forest with 2 foot sheets of
water carrying debris into the Puako residential community and has caused
damage to property on the Mauka side of the Puako road in the past. The
flooding also crosses the road causing damage to property on the Makai side and
often ends up in the Puako bay on top of the coral reef. Research has shown
that the silt and debris are destructive to the reef.
The aquifer can contain high nutrient loads - especially nitrogen.
Kiawe is known to tap the underground water source and efficiently remove the
nitrogen from the water and use it as food for growth. Loss of the trees to
fire would remove the tree root nitrogen filtration and lead to higher nitrogen
levels in the water that ultimately ends up in the reef. High nitrogen levels
are implicated in algae blooms which are known to suffocate the coral and kill
it. These floodwaters can be captured and spread across the forest where it
would be soaked up like a sponge feeding the forest while being filtered before
reaching the aquifer and reef.
Flood Mitigation
The water from heavy rains need to be
managed to spread evenly across the forest via a series of swales that run
perpendicular to the Queen Ka’ahumanu Highway as it was done in the past.
Original flood mitigation designs captured the water and dispersed it evenly
over the land in ditches that run parallel to the highway. The latest flood
mitigation strategy captures the water and focuses it in a flume that pushes it
down the road through the forest and out across the Puakō residence road
into the bay. This method is not functional for the forest, the residences, or
the reef. To protect the reef and homes, the former system should be reinstated.
Gabion baskets and or living flood and firebreaks can also be established to
capture flood silt, decrease the force of flood waters and disperse it
throughout the forest.
The Solution
To resolve this situation, we have to remember the history of Puakō
to date. First, lava past through Puakō 5,000 years ago creating the flow
that resides deep beneath the soil. The Hawaiians landed and altered the land
as needed to survive and make home there. After that came sugar cane and salted
soil. After sugar cane came the cattle and the introduction of Kiawe. The Kiawe
tree’s role is to help the soil heal by keeping it covered, increasing moisture
and fertility so new life can emerge and eventually replace the kiawe.
The treatise, Kiawe—Swaying in the Breeze, by
ethno-botanist /field researcher Neil Logan, outlines the need for a more
symbiotic approach for a well-managed Puako Kiawe forest that will benefit the
surrounding luxury resort and residents, emphasizing the vast potential
resources that could be developed and sustained from the Kiawe forest—i.e.
fence posts, firewood, honey, human and animal food from pods, medicinal
extracts, edible mushrooms, feedstock for electricity, which to this day has
been largely untapped.
Additionally, if
managed correctly, the forest could provide local food security, organic
medicines, domestic bio-energy, organic honey and watershed protection.
Potential crops, uses include:
1) Produce enough revenue per acre to return the land to
“value-added, multi-use sustainable native forest in perpetuity.
2) Regenerate and diversify local industry.
3) Support sustainable solutions to social challenges through
education and hands-on service-learning opportunities
4) Produce enough clean domestic bio-energy to meet and exceed the
products production system requirements
5) Sequester atmospheric carbon
6) Support sustainable food security
7) Increase Bio-diversity, including the introduction of
fire-resistant species
8) Protect the watershed and reef via proper forest management.
9) Sustain fire-safe forests for open space, while protecting the
reef, water shed and community.
10) Develop and demonstrate a sustainable system that is
exportable to other sites and cultures – using Puakō as a “living
laboratory.”
It may cost $30 million or more to clean the forest up and make it
fire safe. An economically viable way to do this is through the sustainable
production of value added forest products (resulting as byproducts of the fire
mitigation program) that will help pay for the management of the forest.
Companies in Hawaii and the United States mainland have been contacted and
immediate markets exist to purchase all the products (lumber, honey, pod flour)
from the Puakō Kiawe forest. The long-term economic forecast predicts the
sale of products over time will greatly offset the costs and the forest would
remain as open space while being maintained in a state of maximum fire safety.
A not-for-profit status might be more attractive from a practical perspective.
The forest will begin to generate revenue in the first month of the fire
mitigation program via the sale of forest products.
First, an integrated forest management plan must address the fire
and flood issues. The raw materials for the production of value-added products
(electricity, food, honey, etc.) naturally evolve from the fire mitigation
process. The creation of a fire-and-flood safe forest creates a foundation upon
which larger issues of watershed
management, carbon sequestration, coral reef protection, local protection from
climactic extremes, global warming, regional food security, clean domestic
energy production are responsibly implemented, not only for the benefit of the
present citizen-stakeholders, but for future generations to come.
“The proper management of the Kiawe forest is a win-win situation.
Initially, the state would probably have to finance the cutting, mulching, and
the charcoal industry. A percentage of the charcoal, fence post, mulch, honey,
and Kiawe beans would eventually more than repay the capital outlay needed to
start this process” (Luce 2006).
VII) Conclusion: Considerations and Recommendations
*Secure state-permitted forest
management privileges. The majority
of the forest is on state land and will therefore require permission to perform
fire mitigation activities. Additional permits may be required for value-added
product production.
*Remove ladder fuels and establish
firebreaks. The removal of any and all woody debris
either lying on the ground or suspended in a tree is critical to minimizing
fire danger as these fuels catalyze hotter fires that can move into the crown
and perpetuate more fire. Fuel breaks create an interuption in the growing fire
so that the fire may be slowed and or stopped.
*Manage towards scattered tall trees
(stand management, thinning, etc.) It has been found that large trees on wide spacing help to
minimize the growth of new seedlings. Kiawe is a shade intolerant tree so the
shade cast by large trees tends to significantly reduce the numbers and density
of more fire prone smaller trees.
*Clear firebreaks and access ways. In the event of a fire it will be necessary to
access the forest with fire fighting equipment. Firebreaks and access ways will
be large enough to allow such equipment to navigate the entire forest.
*Incorporate fire-resistant native
plants. Native plants have adapted to local
conditions. They display resistance to fire and require less maintenance and
resources than do exotic plants.
*Implement flood prevention measures. Flood prevention measures have focused on capturing flood waters
into swales and ditches that run perpendicular to the flow and spread the water
out evenly throughout the forest where it is soaked up like a sponge by the
forest before reaching the community.
*Use grazing to reduce/maintain low fuel
loads. Grazing in appropriate areas is an
inexpensive way to keep grass fuels minimized.
*Implement Living Firebreaks. Perimeters and borders of succulent plants act as living barriers
for the containment of grazing animals and help to squelch ground fires
preventing them from climbing ladder fuels into the trees.
*Manage for thorn-free varieties with
sweet tasting pods. A correlation has been observed
between sweetness of pods and thronlessness. Sweet pods usually have a better
flavor and thronless varieties are easier to work with.
*Generate funds from forest products to
pay for management. Raw materials for the production of
value-added products will evolve from the fire mitigation activities.
*Encourage/support diverse research on
kiawe forest management. Kiawe has
many beneficial attributes, which need further development. The Puako forest is
a kind of living laboratory that can offer opportunities to learn more about
this special tree. This knowledge will be useful in other situations where
kiawe occurs.
*Manage for sustainable production of
ecosystem services. The kiawe forest at Puako is buffering
the harsh winds and sun as well as filtering the aquifer below before it
reaches the reef. The forest provides habitat for non-native species with the
potential to provide a suitable microclimate for the re-establishment of
indigenous flora.
Appendices
A: Possible Value-Added Products from Kiawe
(Prosopis pallida)
1) Lumber
2) Firewood
3) Mushrooms
4) Pod Flour (Mesocarp)
5) Seed Gum
6) Seed Protein Concentrate (Aquaculture Food)
7) Ethyl Alcohol (USP)
8) Ethyl Alcohol (Biofuel)
9) Woody Biomass (Biofuel Gasification Technology)
10) Honey
11) Tempeh
12) Coconuts
13) Bio-energy Intercrops
14) Living Firebreak CSA
15) Compost
16) Mulch
17) Nursery (Elite clones, airlayers, etc.)
18) Propolis
19) Pollen
20) Mead
21) Education/Ecotourism
22) Aquaculture
23) Animal Products
B: “How to prune a kiawe for fire safety, productivity
and long-term health of the tree.”
Kiawe trees often grow in
harsh conditions with little soil and water and lots of wind. For this reason
they die back during times of drought leaving dead branches that can be fire
hazards. When growing in deep soil with ample water, the trees have a tendency
to grow tall and in windy conditions this leaves them susceptible to being
blown over which also creates a fire hazard. For these reasons it is essential
to care for kiawe trees for fire safety and long-term health. Studies have
demonstrated that regular pruning enhances flower and pod production. Below are
some simple guidelines for pruning kiawe trees with a diagram and example of a
well-pruned kiawe tree.
* Prune away all dead wood on the tree. Hanging dead branches or dead
tips will need to be removed.
* Prune all side branches up to 10’ and select for one single, straight
trunk when ever possible.
* Top the tree as needed (if it is in a windy site) to create a balanced
symmetry.
* Chip all the wood from prunings and return it to the tree as mulch
around the base. (This will help keep the grasses back if the mulch layer is
thick enough.)
In this way
the fire danger has been minimized. The efficient use of water and nutrient
resources for the tree is maximized. The tree has the best opportunity to
withstand fire and wind threats.
|
Tree Pruning Dimensions |
Well Pruned Kiawe Tree |
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C: Maps
|
Map of Puako Region |
Kiawe Forest |
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*Maps
Courtesy of DLNR 2006
Bergin, Dr. Billy Loyal to the Land University of Hawaii Press,
Date?
Esbenshade, H. W. (1980) Kiawe:
a tree crop in Hawaii. International Tree Crops Journal 1:125-130.
Felker, Peter and Patch, Nancy Managing Coppice, Sapling, and Mature Prosopis For
Firewood, Poles, and Lumber and Center for Semi-Arid Forest
Resources Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute Kingsville, Texas 78363,
PDF file Accessed on the web 2005.
Logan, Neil (2007) Swaying in the
Breeze: A Comprehensive Guide to the
Management of Kiawe (Prosopis pallida) in Hawaii. pp. 150 unpublished.
Luce, Allen (2006) Personal Communication.
Nabhan, G. P. (1987) Gathering the Desert,
University of Arizona Press pgs 61-74
Paris, William (2006) Personal
Communication.
Pasiecznik, N.M., Felker, P., Harris, P.J.C., Harsh, L.N., Cruz,
G., Tewari, J.C., Cadoret, K. and Maldonado, L.J. (2001) The Prosopis
juliflora - Prosopis pallida Complex: A Monograph. HDRA, Coventry, UK.
pp.172.
Puakö Historical Society Affectionate History of Puako,
2000.
Shumate, Jerry (2006) Personal Communication.
Spiegel, Richard. 2004. Puakō Kiawe
Forest Apiary pgs 2-30.
Thevine, Leon (2006) Personal Communication.